教案资料|法国文学作品英文摘抄(热门十二篇)_法国文学作品英文摘抄

我不知道为什么当我在选课上看到生态文学时，突然对它产生了兴趣。也许这就是命运！开始我并不知道什么是生态文学，后来我百度了一下，得到了以下的答案：“我国生态文学研究的开拓者之一王诺先生给生态文学下的定义是：

“生态文学是以生态整体主义为思想基础，以生态系统整体利益为最**值的考察和表现自然与人之关系和探寻生态危机之社会根源的文学。”简明的定义是：生态文学是一种反映生态环境与人类社会发展的关系的文学。

”然而我对这答案并不满意，直到后来上了这门课程，通过老师的介绍和**各种生态文学作品，我才对生态文学有了深入了解。

我才知道：“生态文学”的关键是“生态”。这个决定因素的主要意义不只是描述生态或自然，不那么简单；而是指这类文学是“生态的”——具备生态思想和生态视角的。

在对数千年生态思想和数十年生态文学进行全面考察之后，可以得出这样一种判断：生态思想的核心是生态系统观、整体观和联系观，生态思想以生态系统的平衡、稳定和整体利益为出发点和终极标准，而不是以人类或任何一个物种、任何一个局部的利益为价值判断的最高标准。据此，我们可以得到生态文学最基本的特征--

生态文学是以生态系统的整体利益为最**值的文学，而不是以人类中心主义为理论基础、以人类的利益为价值判断之终极尺度的文学。生态文学以生态整体主义或生态整体观作为指导考察自然与人的关系，它对人类所有与自然有关的思想、态度和行为的判断标准是：是否有利于生态系统的整体利益，即生态系统和谐、稳定和持续地自然存在。

不把人类作为自然界的中心、不把人类的利益作为价值判断的终极尺度，并不意味着生态文学蔑视人类或者***；恰恰相反，生态灾难的恶果和生态危机的现实使生态文学家认识到，只有把生态系统的整体利益作为根本前提和最**值，人类才有可能真正有效地消除生态危机，而凡是有利于生态系统整体利益的，最终也一定有利于人类的长远利益或根本利益。

传统的描写自然的文学大都把人以外的自然物仅仅当作工具、途径、手段、符号、对应物等等，来抒发、表现、比喻、对应、暗示、象征人的内心世界和人格特征。“感时花溅泪，恨别鸟惊心”里的花和鸟本身并不重要，重要的是它们可以用作工具表达诗人的情感。这种写作是人类中心主义在文学中的典型表现。

生态作家非常反对纯功利和工具性的对待自然。生态文学的核心特征决定了它必须排除一切以工具性态度和方法对待自然的文学。这一核心特征使我们能够在生态文学作品和非生态描写自然的作品之间划清界限。

在第一节课上，老师详细地向我们介绍了一封信。据说这封信是一位居住在美国图瓦卢的土著酋长写的。这封信的名字叫“图雅卢宣言”。

宣言被世界环境保护组织用作教科书。这份宣言道出了一名土著酋长对环境遭到破坏的深深担忧，也表明了虽然土著人的技术落后，但他们更了解、亲近自然。他们没有征服自然的野心，因为他们知道这是不可能的。

他们更习惯自然并敬畏自然。

自从学了这门课，我也了解到了“环境文学”与“生态文学”的不同。“环境文学”一术语的最大问题在于隐藏在它下面的思想。其逻辑起点不是生态整体论，而是人类中心主义的自然观。

著名的生态文学研究者格罗特费尔蒂教授说得好，“‘环境’是一个人类中心的和二元论的术语。它意味着我们人类在中心，周围由所有非人的物质环绕，那就是环境。与之相对，‘生态’则意味着相互依存的共同体、整体化的系统和系统内各部分之间的密切联系。

”因此，如果将生态整体主义而不是人类中心主义作为生态文学的思想基础，就不应当使用“环境文学”这个透露出人的自大和骄妄的术语。同理，也应当以“生态保护”取代“环境保护”。生态思想要求人类调整一系列的旧观念和旧话语。

生态文学是研究和表达人与自然关系的文学。生态责任是生态文学的突出特征。生态文学对人与自然关系的研究和表现主要包括：

自然对人的影响（物质的和精神的两个方面）、人类在自然界的地位，自然整体以及自然万物与人类的关系，人对自然的征服、控制、改造、掠夺和摧残，人对自然的保护和对生态平衡的恢复与重建，人对自然的赞美和审美，人类重返和重建与自然的和谐等。在表现自然与人的关系时，生态文学特别重视人对自然的责任与义务，急切地呼吁保护自然万物和维护生态平衡，热情地赞美为生态整体利益而做出的自我牺牲。生态文学把人对自然的责任作为文本的主要伦理取向。

生态文学是探索生态危机的社会根源的文学。文明批评是许多生态文学作品的突出特征。生态文学表现了自然与人的关系，但它关注的是人的思想、文化、经济、科技、生活方式和社会发展方式。

生态文学家要探索的核心问题是：人类的文明和发展究竟出了什么问题、犯了什么大错，才导致如此之严重、危及整个地球和所有生命的生态危机？人类到底应当怎样对待自然？

人类究竟应当做些什么、改变些什么，才能有效地缓解直至最终消除生态危机，才能保证生态的持续存在和包括人类在内的所有生命的持续生存？生态文学研究者乔纳森·莱文说得好：“我们的社会文化的所有方面,共同决定了我们在这个世界上生存的独一无二的方式。

如果我们不研究这些，就无法理解人与自然环境的关系，而只能表达一些肤浅的忧虑。……因此，我们必须花更多的精力分析所有决定着人类对待自然的态度和生存于自然环境里的行为的社会文化因素,并将这种分析与文学研究结合起来，……历史地揭示文化是如何影响地球生态的。”

**和揭示生态灾难的社会成因，使生态文学具有文明批评的特征。许多作家对人类中心主义、二元论、征服和统治自然观、欲望动力观、发展至上论、物质主义、消费主义等思想观念，对破坏生态平衡的自然改造、竭泽而渔地榨取自然资源的经济发展、违反自然规律和干扰自然进程的科技创造、严重污染自然的工业化和农业现代化、大规模杀伤**的研制和使用等许许多多的思想、文化、社会现象提出了严厉的批判。由于这一特点，在判断以不作品是否属于生态文学时，不必直接描写自然。

一部完全没有直接描写自然的作品，只要揭示了生态危机的思想文化根源，也堪称生态文学作品。

许多生态文学作品表达了人与自然万物和谐共处、人类未来的理想。生态理想与生态预警是许多生态文学作品的突出特征。生态文学家或向往神话时代初民们的生存状态，或羡慕印第安人与自然万物融为一体，或身体力行地隐居于自然山水之中。

回归自然是生态文学永恒的主题和梦想。生态文学家清楚地知道，人类发展到今天，已经不可能返回与中世纪甚至原始时代同样的生存状态中，但他们还是要执著地写出他们的理想，因为只有这样才可能激发人们不懈地探索在当今的发展阶段如何最大限度地做到与自然和谐相处。生态作家也创作了大量反乌托邦的作品，可以想象未来的生态灾难和人类的毁灭。

这些作品一次又一次地向人类发出警告：人类正在向他的大限步步逼近，如果继续现今的生活方式和生产方式，生态系统的末日就为期不远了。

生态文学是以种以生态思想和生态视角为特征的文学。像其他类型的文学一样，它在艺术上没有什么特别之处。它只是文学的一部分，并不期待取代以人为本的文学。然而，日益严峻的生态危机使其显得越来越重要。

生态文学研究专家、哈佛大学教授布伊尔说得好，生态文学是“为处于危险的世界写作”的。生态文学是人类减轻和防止生态灾难的迫切需要在文学领域里的必然反映，是作家对地球以及所有地球生命之命运的深深忧虑在创作中的必然表现。作家强烈的自然责任感和社会使命感，推动了生态文学的兴起、发展和繁荣。

◆ 法国文学作品英文摘抄

“陌生化”(defamiliarization)表现手法是文学理论界广为关注的文学艺术表现形式,本文把它和翻译的“异化”(foreignization)翻译方法加以区别.针对文学翻译界存在的语言使用过于随意的现象,提出要在正确处理好“陌生化”和可接受性问题的`基础上,客观忠实地再现原文的“陌生化”表现形式,维护文学作品的文学性.

◆ 法国文学作品英文摘抄

合同编号：_____________

甲方：______________________________

法定住址：__________________________

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职务：______________________________

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联系人：____________________________

电话：______________________________

电挂：______________________________

传真：______________________________

帐号：______________________________

电子信箱：__________________________

乙方：______________________________

法定住址：__________________________

法定代表人：________________________

职务：______________________________

委托代理人：________________________

身份证号码：________________________

通讯地址：__________________________

邮政编码：__________________________

联系人：____________________________

电话：______________________________

电挂：______________________________

传真：______________________________

帐号：______________________________

电子信箱：__________________________

鉴于：

1.甲方是依法注册成立并取得合法从事电影(电视剧)制作资格的法人单位;乙方是文学作品《_________》(下称文学作品)的著作权人;

2.甲方有意将乙方文学作品改编成电影(电视剧)文学剧本拍摄电影(电视剧)，并承诺支付一定金额的报酬，乙方表示同意;

鉴于此，双方本着自愿、平等、互惠互利、诚实信用的原则，经充分友好协商，订立如下合同条款，以资共同恪守履行：

第一条许可使用的权利

乙方授予甲方以下权利：

1.将文学作品改编为电影(电视剧)文学剧本;

2.根据由文学作品改编而成的文学剧本拍摄电影(电视剧)，在_________地区发行(播放);

3.甲方还可以将其所拍摄的电影(电视剧)制作成各种音像制品发行，同时也可以网络的形式发行该电影(电视剧)。

第二条使用费及支付方式

甲方向乙方支付版权使用费的方式和标准为：

1.一次性支付报酬：_________元;或_______________。

2.版税：每个拷贝_________元;或_______________。

甲方应在本合同签字后_____天内，向乙方预付上述使用费的______%，其余部分在电影(电视剧)摄制完成后_____天内付清。

甲方按乙方要求将费用划至乙方指定帐户：帐户名：_______________，帐户号：_______________。

如甲方在协议约定时间内未按规定向乙方支付费用，每逾期一日，甲方应向乙方支付逾期费用的百分之_________作为违约金。

第三条作品的交付

乙方应于_________年_________月_________日之前向甲方提供文学作品的电子版本、打印稿或者文学作品手稿的复印件，乙方因故不能按时交付，双方另行商定日期，协商不成，甲方可以终止合同。

第四条许可使用的期限

乙方授权甲方使用文学作品的期限为本合同签署生效之日起______年，从_______年_____月_____日至_______年_____月_____日。双方当事人另有约定的除外。

第五条甲方的权利义务

1.甲方可以根据摄制的需要，在不变动上述文学的主要线索、主要人物、主要情节的情况下，修改上述作品;若甲方希望聘用乙方担任改编文学作品的编剧，由甲乙双方另行协商并签署书面的《聘用编剧合同》。

2.对于文学作品，甲方仅享有本合同第一条规定的乙方所授予的权利，甲方不得超越乙方授权对文学作品进行处置。

3.甲方行使乙方向其授予的权利，不得损害乙方及其文学作品的其他合法权益。

4.在摄制电影(电视剧)的过程中，乙方如果认为有必要，可以聘请甲方担任顾问，为乙方的拍摄工作提供咨询服务。甲方的酬金按日结算，标准为每天￥_________元。甲方担任顾问期间的食宿及交通费用由乙方承担。

5.甲方承担摄制上述文学作品所需要的费用，并负责安排摄制及电影(电视剧)的推广、宣传。

6.甲方对电影(电视剧)片名和署名的确定方式，应该征得乙方的同意。

7.甲方为推广以上述文学作品为蓝本摄制的电影(电视剧)，有权根据电影(电视剧)(电视)剧本编写、发表内容提要和海报。

8.根据文学作品改编而拍摄的电影(电视剧)，其著作权由甲方依法享有。

9.根据文学作品改编而成的文学剧本的著作权，按照甲方与改编文学剧本的编剧之间的约定由甲方或编剧享有。

10.甲方为其摄制的电影(电视剧)及其衍生产品的宣传、推广需要，有权使用乙方向其提供的资料以及乙方的姓名和肖像，无须另行征得乙方同意，亦无须另行向乙方支付酬金，但仅限于对电影(电视剧)进行宣传、推广之目的。

11.由于乙方的原因不能拍摄上述文学作品，甲方有权要求乙方返还预付的费用。

12.甲方应于根据由文学作品改编而成的文学剧本摄制的电影(电视剧)后期制作完毕之日起______日内，将乙方向其提供的所有资料退还乙方或按照乙方要求予以销毁，由此产生的费用由甲方承担。

13.在本合同期满后，甲方可以继续发行根据上述文学作品摄制的电影(电视剧)。

14.如乙方将本合同第一条规定的权利授予其他任何第三方，甲方有权向乙方追索经济赔偿并解除合同。

第六条乙方的权利义务

1.乙方未按照合同约定的期限向甲方提供文学作品的电子版本、打印稿或者文学作品手稿的复印件，乙方应在______日内向甲方提供，因此产生的费用由乙方自行承担。

2.乙方依法享有在根据其文学作品摄制的电影(电视剧)及其他衍生产品上署名的权利。署名的格式、具体位置及字体大小由甲乙双方根据国家的相关规定协商决定。

3.乙方对根据其同意的改编稿而摄制的电影(电视剧)，不得提出保护作品完整性的要求。

◆ 法国文学作品英文摘抄

目标：

1、通过故事感受小野猪妈妈母子之间深深的爱，体会爱的含义。

2、回忆生活中的点滴情景，讲述妈妈对自己的爱。

3、用各种方式表达对妈妈的爱。

活动准备：

录像 挂图 音乐

活动过程：

一、 教师讲述故事第一遍，并提问：

1、故事中有谁？

2、听完故事你的心里是一种什么样的感觉？

二、逐副出示挂图并提问：

图一：1、小野猪身上长了疮，大家都离它很远，为什么？

2、但只有一个人在他身边，是谁？

图二：1、翻过几座山？累不累？妈妈说累了么？三座大山有多高多远？

2、这是你觉得野猪妈妈心里是怎样想的？

3、如果是你的妈妈，你觉得心里怎样？

4、你妈妈为你做哪些事情是不怕累不怕辛苦的？

（心里有爱，就能不怕辛苦，不怕累）

图三：1、一天要先多少次，要洗多少天？三个十天是多少？

2、野猪妈妈放弃了没有？为什么？

三、结合自己的生活经验，讲述自己妈妈和自己的故事

播放日常收集亲子活动录像：在你长大的这么长时间里，你的妈妈也付出了很多很多，有没有你印象最深的事情？四、启发用多种方式表达对妈妈的爱

小野猪说：妈妈我来当你的小拐棍。

那么你要对妈妈说点什么？或者做点什么呢？

五、课后迁移：今天回家对自己的妈妈说一句话（妈妈我爱你），做一件事（递水、鞋子）

◆ 法国文学作品英文摘抄

1、巨大的成就是在巨大的期望中产生的。 泪水和汗水都是涩而咸的，但两者所获的结果不同，泪水大都为你带来痛苦，汗水则为你赢得幸福。与其多流泪，不如多流汗。 用嘲笑别人的愚蠢来显示自己的聪明，同样是一种愚蠢的方法。

2、在花的海洋，随处一看，藏在花朵里的精灵就会大方地让花儿展露芳颜。这儿是一朵盆景菊，沐浴着阳光的柠檬黄的颜色，像极了被用心的画家用颜料加深了生命的活力。花瓣细滑，几十瓣紧紧地簇拥着，羞涩的花蕊被众星捧月地现在花的中央，花蕊呈咖啡色，玲珑而可爱。整朵花好比豆蔻年华的少女头顶蓬松的发髫，女孩带着年少的轻狂和青春的自信朝着阳光奔跑，微笑。

3、江南烟雨，弱水空鳎几穗汀兰摇曳身姿，重重交叠地墨色云朵，恰似宣纸上联袂盛开的娇艳水仙，却带着微不可察的惆怅。空气中氤氲的水汽萦绕着波光涟漪中的轻舟，点缀着丝丝梦的迷离。

4、诚信是为人之道。在“吾日三省吾身”之时，言而有信是必审必省的一项，可见其重要性，修身，齐家治国，平天下，做人的第一步，就是“修身”，而“修身”的第一步，当推言而有信了。古人常为对老友的一句承诺而跋涉千里；孔子的弟子们为了他的遗愿耗时耗力；就连水泊梁山的绿林好汉，江湖大盗聚集之处，当头的就两个字：“信”和“义”，君子一言，驷马难追，为了一句诺言，赴汤蹈火，在所不辞，这才是中国人对诚信的最好阐释！

5、深夏，船桨微微荡开心中的迷雾，凝神眼前一片莲的倩影。我，只为赏荷。翠绿的荷叶丛中，亭亭玉立的荷花，像一个个披着轻纱在湖上沐浴的仙女：含笑伫立，娇羞欲语，嫩蕊凝珠，盈盈欲滴，清香阵阵，沁人心脾。让我感悟那“芰荷以为衣兮，集芙蓉以为裳。不吾知其亦已兮，苟余情其信芳”的佳境。

6、恍惚间，一朵傲然挺立的并蒂莲出现在我的眼前。俗话说：“并蒂莲花开，好事自然来。”它们那一抹深红，像一堆燃起的火，像一罐立刻要倾泼的颜色！我不禁欣喜地伸出手来，抚摸这一对美莲花。

7、我愿意成为一名光荣的志愿者。我承诺：尽己所能，不计报酬，帮助他人，服务社会。践行志愿精神，传播先进文化，为建设团结互助、平等友爱、共同前进的美好社会贡献力量。

8、是谁说“少年不识愁滋味”？我看少年最识愁滋味，但那滋味永远是淡淡的，纯纯的，就像是矿泉水，喝着毫无味道，里面却含着多种矿物质。犹如青春萌动的那些情愫。少年如花，青年便是如诗，如画。十八岁的人们，已懂得人间冷暖，心情阴晴，默默地关注着，谁也不想去揭破那一层纱，就让它蒙着，美好而充实。

9、沉默往往代表着行动，不是说三年不鸣一鸣惊人吗，不是说不在沉默中爆发就在沉默中灭亡吗。沉默往往伴随着力量的积聚。在这个多元化的社会中，不同信仰的人们沉默着，包容着，同时也关注着。沉默是一种内在性的处世方式。

10、夜幕下，忽然飘起了雨，洒洒落落，空气中夹杂着花香，扑面而来，我喜欢临窗听雨！是夜万籁俱寂，都市的灯光在雨幕中闪烁！看着街头碌碌过客，我很欣然！因为我有听雨的闲情！窗外雨打在梧桐叶上，啪啪作响！犹如敲打我的心房，我没有所怀的！也没所思的！我喜欢这份宁静！这份心情！

11、方才勉强颔首自觑，轻巧地卷起诗作，招手唤来小斯结账，拂了拂衣衫上并不存在，转身离去，打开一把油纸伞，抿唇，眷恋似的看了一眼佳人消失的方向，反方向离去，步履踟蹰。

12、假如每天的生活都异常平静，如平静的湖面，如死水激不起一点波澜，那么生活会是怎样的黯然啊！人生的壮美就在波澜起伏中展现。就如那蹦极，高高升起，既而又重重摔下，这是一种怎样的迂回啊！正是平淡之中孕育着躁动，寂然之中交织着奋起，平凡之中藏匿着神奇，这生活才是充满乐趣和活力的啊！

13、请尊重不同的看法，不同的选择，请用心去领会并呵护真正的和谐，各个民族的不同风俗习惯，请给予保护；各个地区的不同生活习性，请给予宽容；尊重商店里买不同饮料的人；尊重音像店里买古典音乐或是流行摇滚音乐的顾客……正是每个人的不同特性构成这变幻的多彩的大千世界，没有不同就没有真正的和谐。

14、风来了。 先是一阵阵飘飘的微风，从西北的海滩那边沙沙地掠过来，轻轻地翻起了夜行人的衣襟，戏弄着路上的枯叶。旷野里响着一片轻微的簌簌声。一会儿，风大了，路旁的高粱狂乱地摇摆着，树上的枯枝克喳克喳地断落下来。一阵可怕的啸声，从远远的旷野上响了过来，阴云更低沉了。沉雷似乎已经冲出了乌云的重重包围，克啦啦啦像爆炸似的响着，从西北方向滚动过来。 负重的生命或许更有韧性，更为健康。适当地给自己的生命负点重，这样或许活得更有意义!

15、二月里的春风，在白天，暖洋洋的，带点潮湿味儿，吹在脸上，却有点像棉花絮拂着脸上的味道；可是一到夜晚，特别是深夜，那股尖厉劲儿，真有点像剪刀呢。夜风在河滩里飘动着，沙滩里的柳树，像喝醉了酒似的，使劲地舞动着她满身的嫩油油的枝条。

16、人类社会前进的滚滚车轮，常会驶进一个个险峻的弯道。社会是后退还是超越，是崩溃还是繁荣，充满了变数，充满了悬念。人生的道路崎岖不平，常会步入许许多多的弯道。人生是止步还是前进，是落后还是超越，充满了挑战，充满了机遇。

17、缤纷成就和谐，试看暮春三月，鹅柳淡烟的嫩黄，映阶碧草的翠绿，出墙红杏的艳红，卷云时舒的碧空，它们的颜色各不相同，但这又有何妨？万紫千红总是春，本来万物都欣然生长的春日就不是由一种色彩来主宰的。不同的是表象，和谐的是本质，缤纷成就的是多彩的丰富，是真正意义的和谐。

18、爱是人生之源，一个人的心中倘若没有爱的泉水，那也就不会有人生的绿荫。有了爱，纵然是满眼阴云、遍地荆棘，你都会对这个世界充满无限的迷恋和神往。爱造就人成为独一无二的动物，物质的贫缺只会导致人生的艰难，而爱的匮缺则会使人生空虚和灵魂孤独。

19、离家，念家，归家，是人的必然，也是人生的一种模式。我虽未踏上离家的路，却也明白那是怎样深沉的情感，刻在心上挥之不去，连逝水一样的时间也无法洗去的痕迹。自古多少的少年意气风发地与家园作别，当脸庞印上了皱纹，鬓角染上了霜华，归家后儿童相见不相识才明白乡音未改，家园未变，只是心老了。再摸摸那已经坍圮的残垣，已经衰败的破瓦，几十年的想念便涌上来，把坚强卸下，把疲惫拿出，伏下身去痛哭一场。

20、作为一名班主任，“民主教育”是他的一大特色，“爱心教育”是他成功的基石。他的爱是博爱，是严爱，是充满艺术魅力的关爱，他的教育方式是感性的，学生之于他朋友而非机器。是啊，当我们以冷眼、责骂和各种各样无休止的惩罚对待学生的时候，我们又怎能期望教育能深入学生的心灵？离开了对学生起码的爱，一切教育都是一纸谎言！――读李镇西《从批判走向建设》

▲赵老师教案网必读精华:
• 爱国文学作品摘抄 | 郁达夫文学作品摘抄 | 文学作品好句摘抄 | 文艺的文学作品摘抄 | 法国文学作品英文摘抄 | 法国文学作品英文摘抄

21、作为刚踏入教育界的我来说，看完这本书，我觉得老师拥有很高的权力。我们的言行影响着学生是成功还是失败，表扬学生还是批评学生，能促进学生还是抑制学生，是我们应该思考的问题，不加约束的权力会破坏班级里的信任关系，极大地阻碍学生的身心发展。――读《塑造教师》

22、如果只看到太阳的黑点，那你的生活将缺少温暖；如果只看到月亮的阴影，那你的生命旅程将难以找到光明；如果只看到树叶的驻洞，那你的人生将失去生机；如果只看到朋友的缺陷，那你的人生旅程将难以寻到知音。如果你完美无缺，那最大的遗憾便是过于完美。

23、秋天还象一个金色的小闹钟，提醒小动物们冬天准备到来了，于是，小喜鹊找来干枯的树枝建造温暖舒适的房子，狗熊吃得饱饱的，准备睡个天昏地暗，小松鼠们四处寻找松果和干果贮藏起来当冬天的粮食，小青蛙在快活地挖洞，准备舒舒服服的睡大觉呢！

24、曾经一直想让别人知道自己的心情，那些沉重，那些无法讲述的悲伤和苍凉，可是，我要如何在浅薄的纸上为你画出我所有的命轮？我要如何让你明白？算了，罢了，你以为我是闹剧也好，你因为我是幸福也好，关上门，各自有各自的幸福或者眼泪。

25、我们生活在时下一个信息量大，物质财富不断增长的时代，更可能陷入精神的空虚和灵魂的漂泊，只有用美来陶冶情趣，用传统文化来铸造性情，用人文品格来指导人生，才能彰显生命的价值，呵护成长的旅程，规范发展的轨迹。

26、漫漫人生路，我们知道，害怕退却，没有出路；我们也知道，中途抛锚，又要耽误时间；我们更知道，任其飘摇，就有触礁沉没的危险。所以，“超越”是我们的必经之路，唯有越过“极限”的高山，我们才能看到旷世奇景！

27、爱心是冬日的一片阳光，使用饥寒交迫的人感受到人间的温暖；爱心是沙漠中的一泓清泉，使用权濒临绝境的人重新看到生活的希望；爱心是洒在久旱大地上的一场甘霖，使孤苦无依的人即刻获得心灵的慰藉。

28、寒风仍旧猛烈的侵袭着，惊扰着行路树摇摇欲坠的枝丫，像哀歌一般回荡在那里，兀自沉思着的.过客伴着悔恨与神伤，落寞在路旁的灰霾里。那时的片刻时光，他也觉得十分漫长。不知过了多长时间，他又缓缓迈出了脚步，也许仅仅是为了一个若隐若现的梦。

29、我蜷缩在黑暗的角落，望着天空，繁星点点，却觅不到月光的踪迹。伤心地唱完“只恐双溪舴艋舟，载不动许多愁”，抬起脑袋，仰望着天空，长长地叹了一口气：爱，究竟在何处？

30、美丽的故事，当其遭遇“人类发展史”的思索，它便只是书架上等待蒙尘的失落一族。而当它以童话的姿态站在世界面前，它便成为了全世界儿童心中的故乡，成了筑梦的奇迹工厂。人生亦如这本险遭埋没的童话：站对舞台，造就成功。

31、盛夏的傍晚。一阵阵轻柔的和缓的小北风，飘出完达山谷，掠过牡丹江面，把果园里的香味，把大江上的波浪的清凉，一丝丝，一股股地吹送进江南岸的龙泉镇，渐渐地，镇子里的暴热和喧闹消歇了。马路旁的白杨、垂柳，庭院中的丁香，海棠，也全从酷暑的困倦中醒了来。清风在绿叶间簌簌流动，花香在屋檐下悄悄飘荡。一切都是惬意的，宁静的。整个沿江排开的小城，如同一个仰面静卧的巨人，正用它全部身心去感受晚风的恩泽，去尽享风中那淡淡的幽香和湿润的爽意。

32、缕缕书香，溢满校园每个角落。教育理念化作甘霖，更好地服务于教育，让每节课充满诗情画意，让学生心灵放飞，用知识点燃智慧，书籍是无穷的知识宝藏，是浩瀚的知识海洋，师生在知识海洋中扬帆起航……――读《书籍是长生果》

33、让自己的生命为他人开一朵花，为他人灿烂一片心地，增加一缕温馨，添一分生存下来的理由，多一些坚韧与执着，也就提高了自己生存的质量。用自己的心为他人做圃，给他人织一地绿茵、染一片色彩，就是在给自己的人生喝彩。

34、步态有些蹒跚的他正拥着微微的醉意行走，光亮的前额，只有几根黑发遮掩着，宽宽的大脸上早已爬上岁月的痕迹，一双眼睛始终犀利，似乎要刺穿这黑幕下的丑恶。

35、丰盈的花朵竟簌簌地凋落，一片片轻盈地落在水面上的花瓣，舞出大大小小的水晕，一圈一圈地散开来。花瓣小舟随着风的指示，摇曳着，伴着那份花香渐渐消逝远去……只剩下两颗小小的花芯孤零零地伫立与水面上。

36、当然，感情并不能代替教育，但是我们的教育必须充满感情，这就是要有一颗爱学的心。而教师对学生真挚的爱是我们感染学生的情感魅力，师生在人格上是平等的，教师不应该自视比学生“高人一等”，因此我们对学生的爱，不应是居高临下的“平易近人”，而是发自肺腑的朋友的爱。――读《爱心与教育》

37、盛夏的傍晚。一阵阵轻柔的和缓的小北风，飘出完达山谷，掠过牡丹江面，把果园里的香味，把大江上的波浪的清凉，一丝丝，一股股地吹送进江南岸的龙泉镇，渐渐地，镇子里的暴热和喧闹消歇了。

38、倘若我是跋涉千里的夜行者，母亲必是那重重夜幕里一盏温柔的灯光，远远的为我亮着，轻唤我迟疑的脚步；倘若我只是自怨自艾的蹩脚演员，母亲必是那热烈的掌声，呼唤我自信，鞭策我努力；倘若我是条嬉戏的小游鱼儿，母亲必是那一汪碧绿的湖水，在包容我顽皮任任性的同时，也将我的快乐涟漪般一圈圈的扩散了去。

39、霏霏细雨之后，飒飒秋风不期而至，带来了些许清凉的况味。我身穿藏蓝色长袖衫和浅蓝色牛仔裤，在大学校园里漫无目的地彳亍。偶尔可见几位学长学姐走过，他们或者步履匆匆，或者悠闲自在，脸上既洋溢着蓬勃的朝气，又书写着成熟的沉稳。

40、江河没有大海的汹涌澎湃，却有蜿蜒流转的气韵；小草没有青松的高大挺拔，却有绿意勃勃的柔韧；星星没有月亮的皎洁明亮，却有熠熠生辉的闪烁。世间万物，各有千秋，不必慨叹自己的不足，发挥自己的长处，风景这边独好。

42、踏过一片海，用博识的学问激起片片微澜；采过一丛花，正在聪慧的碰碰外送来缕缕清喷鼻；无过一个梦，决定从那里启程。

43、人是一种社会动物。众生芸芸，人海茫茫，人耳总是张大了耳廓，兴奋而又迷惘到接受着这世间的万籁，从而不可避免地相信他人，动摇自己的本真。这时，他会迷失了自我，不相信自己，只一味依赖于他人，凡事毫无主见，成为一只温驯的任人宰割的羔羊!

44、拒绝平庸，首先甘于平凡。平凡是人生的常态。绝大多数人岗位平凡，角色普通，生活平淡，琐事连连，感受人生的喜怒哀乐。从容面对平凡，()摆正心态，多一份宁静，少一份浮躁。其次创造不凡。从平凡中掘取激情，积极向上，勇于进取，挖掘潜力，奉献自己的光和热，执著追求，少一份抱怨，多一份从容。你会远离灯红酒绿纸醉金迷，不会贪图享受，庸碌无为，不求显达于世，但求有所作为。

45、一个志愿者就是一把泥土，但我们存在的意义，不是被淹没。而是与无数把泥土聚集在一起，成就一座山峰，一条山脉，一片群峰。这样的山峰，可以改变风的走向，可以决定水的流速。这风，就是社会风气，这水，就是文明进程。

46、仰望星空，那似乎没有纤瑕的星辰在银河中闪耀，它带给我们无限的遐想，那不染纤尘的星空里，放飞了多少人美丽的梦想！飞上星星的人知道，那里像地球一样，有灰尘也有石渣，于是他们失去了对幻想的渴望。我们虽不能一味沉溺于自己的幻想之中，却也不能让自由飞翔的思想湮没在无情的现实里。

47、我们的课堂似乎不需要过多矫揉造作的客套，似乎也很需要太多精心得不着痕迹的安排，无论如何，如果一位真正能读懂生活的乐趣、真正能从生命的角度审视课堂，并乐于将一切自己感受过快乐的东西带给他人的老师也一定会懂得如何给自己的学生经常带去亲近大自然，亲近生活、体验生活乐趣的一堂课。――读《课堂亲近生活》

48、初冬里带有些温热，有换季的颜色。中山公园里秋意澎湃的菊花展热闹地举办着，又是一年一届菊展，虽已入冬，但秋的热情却从未停歇，它带满园的菊韵来到世间。

49、危，有时小得像一滴灯油滴到了衣服上，而法国年轻的家务杂工不得不用白干一年来赔偿。而他危中寻机，发现了被煤油滴染的地方，不仅没脏反而把陈年的污渍清除了。这个发现，使他研制出了干洗剂。没有危，怎么会有对传统洗衣技术的巨大改革呢？

◆ 法国文学作品英文摘抄

until 1707, this section deals primarily with english history. england and wales were formally united in 1536. in 1707, when great britain was created by the act of union between scotland and england, english history became part of british history. for the early history of scotland and wales, see separate articles. see also ireland; ireland, northern; and the tables entitled rulers of england and great britain and prime ministers of great britain.

early period to the norman conquest

little is known about the earliest inhabitants of britain, but the remains of their dolmens and barrows and the great stone circles at stonehenge and avebury are evidence of the developed culture of the prehistoric britons. they had developed a bronze age culture by the time the first celtic invaders (early 5th cent. b.c.) brought their energetic iron age culture to britain. it is believed that julius caesar's successful military campaign in britain in 54 b.c. was aimed at preventing incursions into gaul from the island.

in a.d. 43 the emperor claudius began the roman conquest of britain, establishing bases at present-day london and colchester. by a.d. 85, rome controlled britain south of the clyde river. there were a number of revolts in the early years of the conquest, the most famous being that of boadicea. in the 2d cent. a.d., hadrian's wall was constructed as a northern defense line. under the roman occupation towns developed, and roads were built to ensure the success of the military occupation. these roads were the most lasting roman achievement in britain (see watling street), long serving as the basic arteries of overland transportation in england. colchester, lincoln, and gloucester were founded by the romans as colonia, settlements of ex-legionaries.

trade contributed to town prosperity; wine, olive oil, plate, and furnishings were imported, and lead, tin, iron, wheat, and wool were exported. this trade declined with the economic dislocation of the late roman empire and the withdrawal of roman troops to meet barbarian threats elsewhere. the garrisons had been consumers of the products of local artisans as well as of imports; as they were disbanded, the towns decayed. barbarian incursions became frequent. in 410 an appeal to rome for military aid was refused, and roman officials subsequently were withdrawn.

as rome withdrew its legions from britain, germanic peoples〞the anglo-saxons and the jutes〞began raids that turned into great waves of invasion and settlement in the later 5th cent. the celts fell back into wales and cornwall and across the english channel to brittany, and the loosely knit tribes of the newcomers gradually coalesced into a heptarchy of kingdoms (see kent, sussex, essex, wessex, east anglia, mercia, and northumbria).

late in the 8th cent., and with increasing severity until the middle of the 9th cent., raiding vikings (known in english history as danes) harassed coastal england and finally, in 865, launched a full-scale invasion. they were first effectively checked by king alfred of wessex and were with great difficulty confined to the danelaw, where their leaders divided land among the soldiers for settlement. alfred's successors conquered the danelaw to form a united england, but new danish invasions late in the 10th cent. overcame ineffective resistance (see ?thelred, 965?——1016). the dane canute ruled all england by 1016. at the expiration of the scandinavian line in 1042, the wessex dynasty (see edward the confessor) regained the throne. the conquest of england in 1066 by william, duke of normandy (william i of england), ended the anglo-saxon period.

the freeman (ceorl) of the early germanic invaders had been responsible to the king and superior to the serf. subsequent centuries of war and subsistence farming, however, had forced the majority of freemen into serfdom, or dependence on the aristocracy of lords and thanes, who came to enjoy a large measure of autonomous control over manors granted them by the king (see manorial system). the central government evolved from tribal chieftainships to become a monarchy in which executive and judicial powers were usually vested in the king. the aristocracy made up his witan, or council of advisers (see witenagemot). the king set up shires as units of local government ruled by earldormen. in some instances these earldormen became powerful hereditary earls, ruling several shires. subdivisions of shires were called hundreds. there were shire and hundred courts, the former headed by sheriffs, the latter by reeves. agriculture was the principal industry, but the danes were aggressive traders, and towns increased in importance starting in the 9th cent.

the anglo-saxons had been christianized by missionaries from rome and from ireland, and the influence of christianity became strongly manifest in all phases of culture (see anglo-saxon literature). differences between irish and continental religious customs were decided in favor of the roman forms at the synod of whitby (663). monastic communities, outstanding in the later 7th and in the 8th cent. and strongly revived in the 10th, developed great proficiency in manuscript illumination. church scholars, such as bede, alcuin, and aelfric〞as well as king alfred himself〞preserved and advanced learning.

a new era in english history began with the norman conquest. william i introduced norman-style political and military feudalism. he used the feudal system to collect taxes, employed the bureaucracy of the church to strengthen the central government, and made the administration of royal justice more efficient.

after the death of william's second son, henry i, the country was subjected to a period of civil war that ended one year before the accession of henry ii in 1154. henry ii's reign was marked by the sharp conflict between king and church that led to the murder of thomas 角 becket. henry carried out great judicial reforms that increased the power and scope of the royal courts. during his reign, in 1171, began the english conquest of ireland. as part of his inheritance he brought to the throne anjou, normandy, and aquitaine. the defense and enlargement of these french territories engaged the energies of successive english kings. in their need for money the kings stimulated the growth of english towns by selling them charters of liberties.

conflict between kings and nobles, which had begun under richard i, came to a head under john, who made unprecedented financial demands and whose foreign and church policies were unsuccessful. a temporary victory of the nobles bore fruit in the most noted of all english constitutional documents, the magna carta (1215). the recurring baronial wars of the 13th cent. (see barons' war; montfort, simon de, earl of leicester) were roughly contemporaneous with the first steps in the development of parliament.

edward i began the conquest of wales and scotland. he also carried out an elaborate reform and expansion of the central courts and of other aspects of the legal system. the hundred years war with france began (1337) in the reign of edward iii. the black death (see plague) first arrived in 1348 and had a tremendous effect on economic life, hastening the breakdown (long since under way) of the manorial and feudal systems, including the institution of serfdom. at the same time the fast-growing towns and trades gave new prominence to the burgess and artisan classes.

in the 14th cent. the english began exporting their wool, rather than depending on foreign traders of english wool. later in the century, trade in woolen cloth began to gain on the raw wool trade. the confusion resulting from such rapid social and economic change fostered radical thought, typified in the teachings of john wyclif (or wycliffe; see also lollardry, and the revolt led by wat tyler. dynastic wars (see roses, wars of the), which weakened both the nobility and the monarchy in the 15th cent., ended with the accession of the tudor family in 1485.

the reign of the tudors (1485——1603) is one of the most fascinating periods in english history. henry vii restored political order and the financial solvency of the crown, bequeathing his son, henry viii, a full exchequer. in 1536, henry viii brought about the political union of england and wales. henry and his minister thomas cromwell greatly expanded the central administration. during henry's reign commerce flourished and the new learning of the renaissance came to england. several factors〞the revival of lollardry, anticlericalism, the influence of humanism, and burgeoning nationalism〞climaxed by the pope's refusal to grant henry a divorce from katharine of arag车n so that he could remarry and have a male heir〞led the king to break with roman catholicism and establish the church of england.

as part of the english reformation (1529——39), henry suppressed the orders of monks and friars and secularized their property. although these actions aroused some popular opposition (see pilgrimage of grace), henry's judicious use of parliament helped secure support for his policies and set important precedents for the future of parliament. england moved farther toward protestantism under edward vi; after a generally hated roman catholic revival under mary i, the roman tie was again cut under elizabeth i, who attempted without complete success to moderate the religious differences among her people.

the elizabethan age was one of great artistic and intellectual achievement, its most notable figure being william shakespeare. national pride basked in the exploits of sir francis drake, sir john hawkins, and the other ※sea dogs.§ overseas trading companies were formed and colonization attempts in the new world were made by sir humphrey gilbert and sir walter raleigh. a long conflict with spain, growing partly out of commercial and maritime rivalry and partly out of religious differences, culminated in the defeat of the spanish armada (1588), although the war continued another 15 years.

inflated prices (caused, in part, by an influx of precious metals from the new world) and the reservation of land by the process of inclosure for sheep pasture (stimulated by the expansion of the wool trade) caused great changes in the social and economic structure of england. the enclosures displaced many tenant farmers from their lands and produced a class of wandering, unemployed ※sturdy beggars.§ the elizabethan poor laws were an attempt to deal with this problem. rising prices affected the monarchy as well, by reducing the value of its fixed customary and hereditary revenues. the country gentry were enriched by the inclosures and by their purchase of former monastic lands, which were also used for grazing. the gentry became leaders in what, toward the end of elizabeth's reign, was an increasingly assertive parliament.

the accession in 1603 of the stuart james i, who was also james vi of scotland, united the thrones of england and scotland. the chronic need for money of both james and his son, charles i, which they attempted to meet by unusual and extralegal means; their espousal of the divine right of kings; their determination to enforce their high anglican preferences in religion; and their use of royal courts such as star chamber, which were not bound by the common law, to persecute opponents, together produced a bitter conflict with parliament that culminated (1642) in the english civil war.

in the war the parliamentarians, effectively led at the end by oliver cromwell, defeated the royalists. the king was tried for treason and beheaded (1649). the monarchy was abolished, and the country was governed by the rump parliament, the remainder of the last parliament (the long parliament) charles had called (1640), until 1653, when cromwell dissolved it and established the protectorate. cromwell brutally subjugated ireland, made a single commonwealth of scotland and england, and strengthened england's naval power and position in international trade. when he died (1658), his son, richard, succeeded as lord protector but governed ineffectively.

the threat of anarchy led to an invitation by a newly elected parliament (the convention parliament) to charles, son of charles i, to become king, ushering in the restoration (1660). it was significant that parliament had summoned the king, rather than the reverse; it was now clear that to be successful the king had to cooperate with parliament. the whig and tory parties developed in the restoration period. although charles ii was personally popular, the old issues of religion, money, and the royal prerogative came to the fore again. parliament revived official anglicanism (see clarendon code), but charles's private sympathies lay with catholicism. he attempted to bypass parliament in the matter of revenue by receiving subsidies from louis xiv of france.

charles's brother and successor, james ii, was an avowed catholic. james tried to strengthen his position in parliament by tampering with the methods of selecting members; he put catholics in high university positions, maintained a standing army (which later deserted him), and claimed the right to suspend laws. the birth (1688) of a male heir, who, it was assumed, would be raised as a catholic, precipitated a crisis.

in the glorious revolution, whig and tory leaders offered the throne to william of orange (william iii), whose protestant wife, mary, was james's daughter. william and mary were proclaimed king and queen by parliament in 1689. the bill of rights confirmed that sovereignty resided in parliament. the act of toleration (1689) extended religious liberty to all protestant sects; in subsequent years, religious passions slowly subsided.

by the act of settlement (1701) the succession to the english throne was determined. since 1603, with the exception of the 1654——60 portion of the interregnum, scotland and england had remained two kingdoms united only in the person of the monarch. when it appeared that william's successor, queen anne, mary's protestant sister, would not have an heir, the scottish succession became of concern, since the scottish parliament had not passed legislation corresponding to the act of settlement. england feared that under a separate monarch scotland might ally itself with france, or worse still, permit a restoration of the catholic heirs of james ii〞although a non-protestant succession had been barred by the scottish parliament. on its part, scotland wished to achieve economic equality with england. the result was the act of union (1707), by which the two kingdoms became one. scotland obtained representation in (what then became) the british parliament at westminster, and the scottish parliament was abolished.

the growth of empire and eighteenth-century political developments

the beginnings of britain's national debt (1692) and the founding of the bank of england (1694) were closely tied with the nation's more active role in world affairs. britain's overseas possessions (see british empire) were augmented by the victorious outcome of the war of the spanish succession, ratified in the peace of utrecht (1713). britain emerged from the war of the austrian succession and from the seven years war as the possessor of the world's greatest empire. the peace of 1763 (see paris, treaty of) confirmed british predominance in india and north america. settlements were made in australia toward the end of the 18th cent.; however, a serious loss was sustained when 13 north american colonies broke away in the american revolution. additional colonies were won in the wars against napoleon i, notable for the victories of horatio nelson and arthur wellesley, duke of wellington.

in ireland, the irish parliament was granted independence in 1782, but in 1798 there was an irish rebellion. a vain attempt to solve the centuries-old irish problem was the abrogation of the irish parliament and the union (1801) of great britain and ireland, with ireland represented in the british parliament.

domestically the long ministry of sir robert walpole (1721——42), during the reigns of george i and george ii, was a period of relative stability that saw the beginnings of the development of the cabinet as the chief executive organ of government.

the 18th cent. was a time of transition in the growth of the british parliamentary system. the monarch still played a very active role in government, choosing and dismissing ministers as he wished. occasionally, sentiment in parliament might force an unwanted minister on him, as when george iii was forced to choose rockingham in 1782, but the king could dissolve parliament and use his considerable patronage power to secure a new one more amenable to his views.

great political leaders of the late 18th cent., such as the earl of chatham (see chatham, william pitt, 1st earl of) and his son william pitt, could not govern in disregard of the crown. important movements for political and social reform arose in the second half of the 18th cent. george iii's arrogant and somewhat anachronistic conception of the crown's role produced a movement among whigs in parliament that called for a reform and reduction of the king's power. edmund burke was a leader of this group, as was the eccentric john wilkes. the tory pitt was also a reformer. these men also opposed britain's colonial policy in north america.

outside parliament, religious dissenters (who were excluded from political office), intellectuals, and others advocated sweeping reforms of established practices and institutions. adam smith's wealth of nations, advocating laissez-faire, appeared in 1776, the same year as the first publication by jeremy bentham, the founder of utilitarianism. the cause of reform, however, was greatly set back by the french revolution and the ensuing wars with france, which greatly alarmed british society. burke became britain's leading intellectual opponent of the revolution, while many british reformers who supported (to varying degrees) the changes in france were branded by british public opinion as extreme jacobins.

economic, social, and political change

george iii was succeeded by george iv and william iv. during the last ten years of his reign, george iii was insane, and sovereignty was exercised by the future george iv. this was the ※regency§ period. in the mid-18th cent., wealth and power in great britain still resided in the aristocracy, the landed gentry, and the commercial oligarchy of the towns. the mass of the population consisted of agricultural laborers, semiliterate and landless, governed locally (in england) by justices of the peace. the countryside was fragmented into semi-isolated agricultural villages and provincial capitals.

however, the period of the late 18th and early 19th cent. was a time of dynamic economic change. the factory system, the discovery and use of steam power, improved inland transportation (canals and turnpikes), the ready supply of coal and iron, a remarkable series of inventions, and men with capital who were eager to invest〞all these elements came together to produce the epochal change known as the industrial revolution.

the impact of these developments on social conditions was enormous, but the most significant socioeconomic fact of all from 1750 to 1850 was the growth of population. the population of great britain (excluding northern ireland) grew from an estimated 7,500,000 in 1750 to about 10,800,000 in 1801 (the year of the first national census) and to about 23,130,000 in 1861. the growing population provided needed labor for industrial expansion and was accompanied by rapid urbanization. urban problems multiplied. at the same time a new period of inclosures (1750——1810; this time to increase the arable farmland) deprived small farmers of their common land. the speenhamland system (begun in 1795), which supplemented wages according to the size of a man's family and the price of bread, and the poor law of 1834 were harsh revisions of the relief laws.

the social unrest following these developments provided a fertile field for methodism, which had been begun by john wesley in the mid-18th cent. methodism was especially popular in the new industrial areas, in some of which the church of england provided no services. it has been theorized that by pacifying social unrest methodism contributed to the prevention of political and social revolution in britain.

in the 1820s the reform impulse that had been largely stifled during the french revolution revived. catholic emancipation (1829) restored to catholics political and civil rights. in 1833 slavery in the british empire was abolished. (the slave trade had been ended in 1807.) parliamentary reform was made imperative by the new patterns of population distribution and by the great growth during the industrial expansion in the size and wealth of the middle class, which lacked commensurate political power. the general elections that followed the death of george iv brought to power a whig ministry committed to parliamentary reform. the reform bill of 1832 (see under reform acts) enfranchised the middle class and redistributed seats to give greater representation to london and the urban boroughs of n england. other parliamentary legislation established the institutional basis for efficient city government and municipal services and for government inspection of factories, schools, and poorhouses.

the competitive advantage british exports had gained from the industrial revolution lent new force to the arguments for free trade. the efforts of the anti-corn-law league, organized by richard cobden and john bright, succeeded in 1846 when robert peel was converted to the cause of free trade, and the corn laws were repealed. but chartism, a mass movement for more thorough political reform, was unsuccessful (1848). further important reforms were delayed nearly 20 years.

the reform bill of 1867, sponsored by disraeli and the conservatives for political reasons, enfranchised the urban working classes and was followed shortly (under gladstone and the liberals) by enactment of the secret ballot and the first steps toward a national education system. in 1884 a third reform bill extended the vote to agricultural laborers. (women could not vote until 1918.) in the 1880s trade unions, which had first appeared earlier in the century, grew larger and more militant as increasing numbers of unskilled workers were unionized. a coalition of labor and socialist groups, organized in 1900, became the labour party in 1906. in the 19th cent. britain's economy took on its characteristic patterns. trade deficits, incurred as the value of food imports exceeded the value of exports such as textiles, iron, steel, and coal, were overcome by income from shipping, insurance services, and foreign investments.

the reign of victoria (1837——1901) covered the period of britain's commercial and industrial leadership of the world and of its greatest political influence. initial steps toward granting self-government for canada were taken at the start of victoria's reign, while in india conquest and expansion continued. great britain's commercial interests, advanced by the british navy, brought on in 1839 the first opium war with china, which opened five chinese ports to british trade and made hong kong a british colony. the aggressive diplomacy of lord palmerston in the 1850s and 60s, including involvement in the crimean war, was popular at home.

from 1868 to 1880 political life in great britain was dominated by benjamin disraeli and william e. gladstone, who differed dramatically over domestic and foreign policy. disraeli, who had attacked gladstone for failing to defend britain's imperial interests, pursued an active foreign policy, determined by considerations of british prestige and the desire to protect the route to india. under disraeli (1874——80) the british acquired the transvaal, the fiji islands, and cyprus, fought frontier wars in africa and afghanistan, and became the largest shareholder in the suez canal company. gladstone strongly condemned disraeli's expansionist policies, but his later ministries involved britain in egypt, afghanistan, and uganda.

gladstone's first ministry (1868——74) had disestablished the church of england in ireland, and in 1886, gladstone unsuccessfully advocated home rule for ireland. the proposal split the liberal party and overturned his ministry. in the last decades of the 19th cent. competition with other european powers and enchantment with the glories of empire led britain to acquire vast territories in asia and africa. by the end of the century the country was entangled in the south african war (1899——1902). great britain's period of hegemony was ending, as both germany and the united states were surpassing it in industrial production.

victoria was succeeded by her son edward vii, then by his son, george v. the liberals, in power 1905——15, enacted much social legislation, including old-age pensions, health and unemployment insurance, child health laws, and more progressive taxation. the budget sponsored by david lloyd george to finance the liberals' program brought on a parliamentary struggle that ended in a drastic reduction of the power of the house of lords (1911). growing military and economic rivalry with germany led great britain to form ententes with its former colonial rivals, france and russia (see triple alliance and triple entente).

in 1914, germany's violation of belgium's neutrality, which since 1839 britain had been pledged to uphold, caused britain to go to war against germany (see world war i). although the british emerged as victors, the war took a terrible toll on the nation. about 750,000 men had died and seven million tons of shipping had been lost. in the peace settlement (see versailles, treaty of) britain acquired, as league of nations mandates, additional territories in africa, asia, and the middle east. but the four years of fighting had drained the nation of wealth and manpower.

the postwar years were a time of great moral disillusionment and material difficulties. to the international problems stemming directly from the war, such as disarmament, reparations, and war debts, were added complex domestic economic problems, the task of reorganizing the british empire, and the tangled irish problem. northern ireland was created in 1920, and the irish free state (see ireland, republic of) in 1921——22.

the basic domestic economic problem of the post——world war i years was the decline of britain's traditional export industries, which made it more difficult for the country to pay for its imports of foods and raw materials. a labour government, under ramsay macdonald, was in power for the first time briefly in 1924. in 1926 the country suffered a general strike. severe economic stress increased during the worldwide economic depression of the late 1920s and early 30s. during the financial crisis of 1931, george v asked macdonald to head a coalition government, which took the country off the gold standard, ceased the repayment of war debts, and supplanted free trade with protective tariffs modified by preferential treatment within the empire (see commonwealth of nations) and with treaty nations.

recovery from the depression began to be evident in 1933. although old export industries such as coal mining and cotton manufacturing remained depressed, other industries, such as electrical engineering, automobile manufacture, and industrial chemistry, were developed or strengthened. george v was succeeded by edward viii, after whose abdication (1936) george vi came to the throne. in 1937, neville chamberlain became prime minister.

the years prior to the outbreak of world war ii were characterized by the ineffective attempts to stem the rising tide of german and italian aggression. the league of nations, in which britain was a leader, declined rapidly by failing to take decisive action, and british prestige fell further because of a policy of nonintervention in the spanish civil war. appeasement of the axis powers, which was the policy of the chamberlain government, reached its climactic failure (as became evident later) in the munich pact of sept., 1938. great britain had begun to rearm in 1936 and, after munich, instituted conscription. with the signing of the soviet-german pact of aug., 1939, war was recognized as inevitable.

world war ii and the welfare state

on sept. 1, 1939, germany attacked poland. great britain and france declared war on germany on sept. 3, and all the dominions of the commonwealth except ireland followed suit (see world war ii). chamberlain broadened his cabinet to include labour representatives, but after german victories in scandinavia he resigned (may, 1940) and was replaced by winston s. churchill. france fell in june, 1940, but the heroic rescue of a substantial part of the british army from dunkirk (may——june) enabled britain, now virtually alone, to remain in the war.

the nation withstood intensive bombardment (see battle of britain), but ultimately the royal air force was able to drive off the luftwaffe. extensive damage was sustained, and great urban areas, including large sections of london, were devastated. the british people rose to a supreme war effort; american aid (see lend-lease) provided vital help. in 1941, great britain gained two allies when germany invaded the ussr (june) and the united states entered the war following the japanese attack on pearl harbor (dec. 7). britain declared war on japan on dec. 8.

the wartime alliance of great britain, the ussr, and the united states led to the formation of the united nations and brought about the defeat of germany (may, 1945) and japan (sept., 1945). the british economy suffered severely from the war. manpower losses had been severe, including about 420,000 dead; large urban areas had to be rebuilt, and the industrial plant needed reconstruction and modernization. leadership in world trade, shipping, and banking had passed to the united states, and overseas investments had been largely liquidated to pay the cost of the world wars. this was a serious blow to the british economy because the income from these activities had previously served to offset the import-export deficit.

in 1945, the first general elections in ten years were held (they had been postponed because of the war) and clement attlee and the labour party were swept into power. austere wartime economic controls were continued, and in 1946 the united states extended a large loan. the united states made further assistance available in 1948 through the marshall plan. in 1949 the pound was devalued (in terms of u.s. dollars, from .03 to .80) to make british exports more competitive.

the labour government pursued from the start a vigorous program of nationalization of industry and extension of social services. the bank of england, the coal industry, communications facilities, civil aviation, electricity, and internal transport were nationalized, and in 1948 a vast program of socialized medicine was instituted (many of these programs followed the recommendations of wartime commissions). also in 1948, labour began the nationalization of the steel industry, but the law did not become effective until 1951, after churchill and the conservatives had returned to office. the conservatives denationalized the trucking industry and all but one of the steel companies and ended direct economic controls, but they retained labour's social reforms. elizabeth ii succeeded george vi in 1952.

in postwar foreign affairs great britain's loss of power was also evident. britain had undertaken to help greece and turkey resist communist subversion, but the financial burden proved too great, and the task was assumed (1947) by the united states. the british empire underwent rapid transformation. british india was partitioned (1947) into two self-governing states, india and pakistan. in palestine, unable to maintain peace between arabs and jews, britain turned its mandate over to the united nations. groundwork was laid for the independence of many other colonies; like india and pakistan, most of them remained in the commonwealth after independence. great britain joined the north atlantic treaty organization (1949) and fought on the united nations' side in the korean war (1950——53).

the conservative governments of churchill and his successor, anthony eden (1955), were beset by numerous difficulties in foreign affairs, including the nationalization (1951) of british petroleum fields and refineries in iran, the mau mau uprising in kenya (1952——56), turmoil in cyprus (1954——59), and the problem of apartheid in south africa. the nationalization (1956) of the suez canal by egypt touched off a crisis in which britain, france, and israel invaded egypt. opposition by the united states brought about a halt of the invasion and withdrawal of the troops.

great britain helped to form (1959) the european free trade association (efta), but in 1961 the government of harold macmillan announced its decision to seek membership in the european economic community. because of french opposition as well as britain's request for special considerations for the countries of the commonwealth and of efta, agreement on british entry was not reached until 1971. britain finally entered what had become the european community (now the european union ) in jan., 1973.

labour returned to power in 1964 under harold wilson, and the steel industry was renationalized. the country faced the compound economic problems of a very unfavorable balance of trade, the instability of the pound sterling, a lagging rate of economic growth, and inflationary wages and prices. a number of sterling crises were followed by government controls and cutbacks.

britain supported u.s. policy in vietnam. the policy of granting independence to colonial possessions continued; however, rhodesia (see zimbabwe) became a problem when its government, representing only the white minority, unilaterally declared its independence in 1965. another problem was spain's demand for the return of gibraltar. a major crisis erupted in northern ireland in late 1968 when catholic civil-rights demonstrations turned into violent confrontations between catholics and protestants. british army units were dispatched in an unsuccessful attempt to restore calm. in 1972 the british government suspended the northern ireland parliament and government and assumed direct control of the province.

the conservatives under edward heath returned to power in britain in 1970. at the end of 1973 the country underwent its worst economic crisis since world war ii. the balance of payments deficit, after improving in the late 1960s, had worsened. serious inflation had led to widespread labor unrest in the critical coal-mining, railroad, and electrical industries, leading to a shortage of coal, britain's main energy source. a further blow, following the 1973 war in the middle east, was the reduction in oil shipments by several arab states and a steep increase in the price of oil.

when coal miners voted to strike in early 1974, heath called an election in an attempt to bolster his position in resisting the miners' demands. neither labour nor the conservatives emerged from that election with a plurality in the commons. after an unsuccessful attempt to form a minority government, heath resigned (mar., 1974) and was succeeded as prime minister by harold wilson, who moved immediately to settle the miners' dispute.

in the elections of oct., 1974, the labour party won a slim majority; wilson continued as prime minister. the early 1970s brought the development of oil and natural gas fields in the north sea, which helped to decrease britain's reliance on coal and foreign fuel. wilson resigned and was succeeded by james callaghan in apr., 1976. neither wilson nor callaghan was able to resolve growing disagreements with the unions, and unrest among industrial workers became the dominant note of the late 1970s. in mar., 1979, callaghan left office after losing a no-confidence vote.

in may, 1979, the conservatives returned to power under the leadership of margaret thatcher, who set out to reverse the postwar trend toward socialism by reducing government borrowing, freezing expenditures, and privatizing state-owned industries. thatcher also managed to break union resistance through a series of laws that included the illegalization of secondary strikes and boycotts. a violent, unsuccessful yearlong miners' strike (1984——85) was thatcher's most serious union confrontation.

thatcher gained increased popularity by her actions in the falkland islands conflict with argentina; she led the conservatives to victory again in 1983 and 1987, the latter an unprecedented third consecutive general election win. in 1985, great britain agreed that hong kong would revert to chinese sovereignty in . in 1986, the channel tunnel project was begun with france; the rail link with the european mainland opened in 1994.

a decade of thatcher's economic policies resulted in a marked disparity between the developed southern economy and the decaying industrial centers of the north. her unpopular stands on some issues, such as her opposition to greater british integration in europe, caused a conservative party revolt that led her to resign in nov., 1990, whereupon john major became party leader and prime minister. despite a lingering recession, the conservatives retained power in the 1992 general election.

a peace initiative opened by prime minister major in 1993 led to cease-fires in 1994 by the irish republican army and loyalist paramilitaries in northern ireland. peace efforts foundered early in , as the ira again resorted to terrorist bombings. in july, 1997, the ira declared a new cease-fire, and talks begun in september of that year included sinn f谷in. an accord reached in provided for a new regional assembly to be established in belfast, but formation of the government was hindered by disagreement over guerrilla disarmament. with resolution of those issues late in 1999, direct rule was ended in northern ireland, but tensions over disarmament have led to several lengthy suspensions of home rule since then.

the major government was beset by internal scandals and by an intraparty rift over the degree of british participation in the european union (eu), but major called a conservative party leadership election for july, 1995, and easily triumphed. in nov., 1995, three divisions of british rail were sold off in britain's largest-ever privatization by direct sale. britain's sometimes stormy relationship with the eu was heightened in 1996 when an outbreak of ※mad cow disease§ (see prion) in england led the eu to ban the sale of british beef; the crisis eased when british plans for controlling the disease were approved by the eu. although the eu ban was ended in 1999, france continued its own ban on british beef, causing a strain in british-french relations and within the eu. in , british livestock farmers were again hurt by an outbreak of disease, this time foot-and-mouth disease.

in the elections of may, 1997, labour won 418 seats in the house of commons by following a centrist political strategy. tony blair, head of what he called the ※new labour§ party, became prime minister. in august, britain mourned princess diana, the former wife of prince charles, who was killed in a car accident in paris. blair's pledge to decentralize government was endorsed in september, when scotland and wales both voted to establish legislative bodies, giving them a stronger voice in their domestic affairs. a bill passed by both houses of parliament in 1999 stripped most hereditary peers of their right to sit and vote in the house of lords; the shape of the reconstituted upper chamber is to be studied by a commission. blair and labour again trounced the conservatives in june, 2001, though the victory was not so much a vote of confidence in labour as a rejection of the opposition.

following the devastating sept., 2001, terrorist attacks in the united states, the british government became the most visible international supporter of the bush administration in its war on terrorism. government officials visited muslim nations to seek their participation in the campaign, and british forces joined the americans in launching attacks against afghanistan after the taliban government refused to hand over osama bin laden. the blair government was also a strong supporter of the united states' position that military action should be taken against iraq if un weapons inspections were not resumed under new, stricter conditions, and committed british forces to the u.s.-led invasion of iraq that began in mar., 2003.

blair's strong support for the invasion, and the failure to find any weapons of mass destruction in iraq, were factors in labour's third-place finish in the june, , local elections; the results reflected the british public's dissatisfaction with the country's involvement in iraq. labour, and the conservative party as well, suffered losses in the subsequent european parliament elections, which saw the anti-eu united kingdom independence party double its vote to 16%. in the parliamentary elections the issue of iraq again hurt blair and labour, whose large parliamentary majority was significantly reduced. nonetheless, the election marked the first time a labour government had secured a third consecutive term at the polls.

on july, 7, 2005, london experienced four coordinated bombing on its underground and bus system that killed more 50 people and injured some 700. the attacks, which broadly resembled the mar., 2004, bombings in madrid, appeared to be the work of islamic suicide bombers; three of the suspected bombers were born in britain. evidence uncovered by the british police indicated that the attacks may have been directed by a member of al qaeda. a second set of suicide bombings was attempted later in the month, but the bombs failed to detonate.

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